From New Zealand Connections

Coaxial cable is an electrical cable consisting of a round conducting wire, surrounded by an insulating spacer, surrounded by a cylinder (geometry) cylindrical conducting sheath, usually surrounded by a final insulating layer (jacket). It is used as a transmission line High-frequency electrical transmission lines to carry a high-frequency or broadband signal. Because the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists (ideally) only in the space between the inner and outer electrical conductor, it cannot interfere with or suffer interference from external electromagnetic fields.

Contents 1 Description 2 Signal propagation 3 Connectors 4 Important parameters 5 Leakage 6 Standards 7 Significance of impedance 8 Uses 9 Types 10 Interference and troubleshooting 11 Timeline 12 External links

Description

Coaxial cables may be rigid or flexible. Rigid types have a solid sheath, while flexible types have a braided sheath, usually of thin copper wire. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the cable's properties, such as its characteristic impedance and its attenuation. The dielectric may be solid or perforated with air spaces. Connections to the ends of coaxial cables are usually made with RF connectors.

Signal propagation

Open wire transmission lines have the property that the electromagnetic wave propagating down the line extends into the space surrounding the parallel wires. These lines have low loss, but also have undesirable characteristics. They cannot be bent, twisted or otherwise shaped without changing their characteristic impedance. They also cannot be run along or attached to anything conductive, as the extended fields will induce currents in the nearby conductors causing unwanted radiation and detuning of the line. Coaxial lines solve this problem by confining the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and moderately twisted without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them. In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates only in the Transverse electric and magnetic mode, which means that the electric field are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation. However, above a certain cutoff frequency, transverse electric (TE) and/or transverse magnetic (TM) modes can also propagate, as they do in a waveguide. It is usually undesirable to transmit signals above the cutoff frequency, since it may cause multiple modes with different phase velocity to propagate, wave interference with each other. The outer diameter is roughly inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency.

The outer conductor can also be made of (in order of decreasing leakage and in this case degree of balance): double shield, wound foil, woven tape, braid. The ohmic losses in the conductor increase in this order: Ideal conductor (no loss), superconductor, silver, copper. It is further increased by rough surface (in the order of the skin depth, lateral: current hot spots, longitudinal: long current path) for example due to woven braid, multistranded conductors or a corrugated tube as a conductor) and impurities especially oxygen in the metal (due to a lack of a protective coating). Litz wire is used between 1 kHz and 1 MHz to reduce ohmic losses. Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating (dielectric) material to maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield. The permittivity losses increase in this order: Ideal dielectric (no loss), vacuum, air, PTFE-foam, PTFE, polyethylene. It is further increased by impurities like water. In typical applications the loss in polyethylene is comparable to the ohms law at 1 GHz and the loss in PTFE is comparable to ohmic losses at 10 GHz. A low dielectric constant allows for a greater center conductor: less ohmic losses. An inhomogeneous dielectric needs to be compensated by a noncircular conductor to avoid current hot-spots.

Connectors

From the signal point of view, a connector can be viewed as a short, rigid cable. The connector usually has the same impedance as the related cable and probably has a similar cutoff frequency although its dielectric may be different. Some connectors are gold or rhodium plated, while some connectors use nickel or tin plating. Silver is also used due to its excellent conductivity; although silver tends to oxidize rather quickly silver oxide is still conductive, this may pose a cosmetic issue but it does not degrade the performance of the connector.

One increasing development has been the wider adoption of micro-miniature coaxial cable in the consumer electronics sector in recent years. Wire and cable companies such as Tyco, Sumitomo Electric, Hitachi Cable, Fujikura and FS Cable all manufacture these cables, which can be used in mobile phones.

Important parameters

• The characteristic impedance in Ohm (unit)(Ω) is calculated from the ratio of the inner (d) and outer (D) diameters and the dielectric constant. Assuming the dielectric properties of the material inside the cable do not vary appreciably over the operating range of the cable, this impedance is frequency independent.
• Capacitance, in farads per metre.
• Electrical resistance, in ohms per metre.
• Attenuation or loss, in decibels per metre. This is dependent on the loss in the dielectric material filling the cable, and resistive losses in the center conductor and shield. These losses are frequency dependent, the losses becoming higher as the frequency increases. In designing a system, engineers must consider not only the loss in the actual cable itself, but also the insertion loss in the connectors.
• Outside diameter, which dictates which RF connector must be used to terminate the cable.
• Velocity of propagation, which depends on the type of dielectric.
• Cutoff frequency

Leakage

Leakage is the passage of electromagnetic fields through the shield of the cable. An ideal shield is a solid metal tube of perfect conductivity, perfectly sealed to the connectors at either end. Since no electric field can exist inside a perfect conductor, and a radiating electromagnetic field cannot exist without its electric component, it follows that no electromagnetic radiation can pass through a perfect conductor.

Real cables have a shield made of an imperfect, although usually very good, conductor that inevitably contains some holes. It is possible to measure small voltages on the inside of the shield caused by normal electromagnetic fields outside the shield, and very high voltages in the extreme case when a nuclear weapon is detonated outside the shield. By these means, a typical leakage of 90 dB has been measured. This leakage occurs at holes in the shield, or in case of poor contact between connectors at either end of the cable, or within the circuitry between the cable and the radio transceiver. The holes are smaller when using a foil (solid metal) shield, but foil becomes inflexible with increasing thickness. Thus a thin foil layer is often surrounded by a layer of braided metal, which offers greater flexibility for a given cross-section.

Although leakage theoretically changes the balance and impedance of a cable, in practice the effect is negligible.

Medium and low-frequency signals can pass through the shield by various means.

External current sources like Switched-mode power supply create a voltage across the inductance of the outer conductor between sender and receiver. The effect is less when there are several parallel cables, as this reduces the inductance and therefore the voltage. Because the outer conductor carries the reference potential for the signal on the inner conductor, the receiving circuit measures the wrong voltage.

The transformer effect is sometimes used to mitigate the effect of currents induced in the shield. The inner and outer conductors form the primary and secondary winding of the transformer, and the effect is enhanced in some high quality cables that have an outer layer of mu-metal. Because of this 1:1 transformer, the aforementioned voltage across the outer conductor is transformed onto the inner conductor so that the two voltages can be cancelled by the receiver. Many sender and receivers have means to reduce the leakage even further. They increase the transformer effect by passing the whole cable through a ferrite core sometimes several times.

Some senders and receivers use only a limited range of frequencies and block all others by means of an isolating transformer. Such a transformer breaks the shield for high frequencies. Still others avoid the transformer effect altogether by using two capacitors. If the capacitor for the outer conductor is implemented as one thin gap in the shield, no leakage at high frequencies occurs. At high frequencies, beyond the limits of coaxial cables, it becomes more efficient to use other types of transmission line such as glass optical fiber, which offer low leakage (and much lower losses) around 200 THz and good isolation for all other frequencies.

External low-frequency current sources such as ground loops cause voltages across the Electrical resistance of the outer conductor. This problem can be lessened by adding parallel cables to increase the total conductance. To further reduce the problem, the sender and receiver are matched to the cable (see Impedance matching) to minimise currents and their effects in the shield.

Standards

Most coaxial cables have a characteristic impedance of either 50, 52, 75, or 93 Ω. The RF industry uses standard type-names for coaxial cables. Thanks to television, RG-6 is the most commonly-used coaxial cable, and the majority of connections outside Europe are by F connectors.

A series of standard types of coaxial cable were specified for Army-Navy Equipment Code Designators uses, in the form "RG-#" or "RG-#/U". They go back to World War II and were listed in MIL-HDBK-216 published in 1962. These designations are now obsolete. The current military standard is Defense Standard MIL-C-17. MIL-C-17 numbers, such as "M17/75-RG214," are given for military cables and manufacturer's catalog numbers for civilian applications. However, the RG-series designations were so common for generations that they are still used, although critical users should be aware that since the handbook is withdrawn there is no standard to guarantee the electrical and physical characteristics of a cable described as "RG-# type". The RG designators are mostly used to identify compatible connectors that fit the inner conductor, dielectric, and jacket dimensions of the old RG-series cables.

Table of RG standards:

type	approx. imped. Ω	core	dielectric			overall diameter		braid	velocity factor	comments
			type	[in]	[mm]	[in]	[mm]
RG-6/U	75	1.0 mm	PE	0.185	4.7	0.332	8.4	double		low loss at high frequency for cable television, satellite television and cable modems
RG-6/UQ	75		PE			0.298	7.62	quad		This is "quad shield RG-6". It has four layers of Electromagnetic shielding, regular RG-6 only has one or two
RG-8/U	50	2.17 mm	PE	0.285	7.2	0.405	10.3			Thicknet (10base5) and amateur radio
RG-9/U	51		PE			0.420	10.7			Thicknet Thicknet (10base5)
RG-11/U	75	1.63 mm	PE	0.285	7.2	0.412	10.5		0.66	Used for long drops and underground
RG-58/U	50	0.9 mm	PE	0.116	2.9	0.195	5.0	single	0.66	used for radiocommunication and amateur radio, thin Ethernet (10base2) and NIM electronics. Common.
RG-59/U	75	0.81 mm	PE	0.146	3.7	0.242	6.1	single	0.66	used to carry baseband video in closed-circuit television, previously used for cable television. Generally it has poor shielding but will carry a HQ HD signal or video over short distances. Not legal for use with any CATV or MATV system.
RG-62/U	92		PE			0.242	6.1	single	0.84	used for ARCNET and automotive radio antennas.
RG-62A	93		ASP			0.242	6.1	single		used for NIM electronics
RG-174/U	50	0.48 mm	PE	0.100	2.5	0.100	2.55	single		common for wifi pigtails, more flexible but higher loss than RG58; used with LEMO 00 connectors in NIM electronics.
RG-178/U	50	7x0.1 mm Ag pltd Cu clad Steel	PTFE	0.033	0.84	0.071	1.8	single	0.69
RG-179/U	75	7x0.1 mm Ag pltd Cu	PTFE	0.063	1.6	0.098	2.5	single	0.67	VGA RGBHV
RG-213/U	50	7×0.0296 in Cu	PE	0.285	7.2	0.405	10.3	single	0.66	for radiocommunication and amateur radio, EMC test antenna cables. Typically lower loss than RG58. Common.
RG-214	50					0.406	10.8
RG-218	50	0.195 in Cu	PE	0.660 (0.680?)	16.76 (17.27?)	0.870	22	single	0.66	large diameter, not very flexible, low loss (2.5dB/100' @ 400MHz), 11kV dielectric withstand.
RG-223	50	2.74mm	FE	.285	7.24	.405	10.29	Double
RG-316/U	50	7×0.0067 in	PTFE	0.060	1.5	0.102	2.6	single		used with LEMO 00 connectors in NIM electronics

Commercial designations:

type	approx. imped. Ω	core	dielectric			overall diameter		braid	velocity factor	comments
			type	[in]	[mm]	[in]	[mm]
H155	50								0.79	lower loss at high frequency for radiocommunication and amateur radio</td></tr>
H500	50								0.82	low loss at high frequency for radiocommunication and amateur radio
LMR-195	50									low loss drop-in replacement for RG-58
LMR-200 HDF-200 CFD-200	50	1.12 mm Cu	PF CF	0.116	2.95	0.195	4.95		0.83	low loss communications, 0.554 dB/meter @ 2.4 GHz
LMR-400 HDF-400 CFD-400	50	2.74 mm Cu clad Al	PF CF	0.285	7.24	0.405	10.29		0.85	low loss communications, 0.223 dB/meter @ 2.4 GHz
LMR-600	50	4.47 mm Cu clad Al	PF	0.455	11.56	0.590	14.99		0.87	low loss communications, 0.144 dB/meter @ 2.4 GHz
LMR-900	50	6.65 mm BC tube	PF	0.680	17.27	0.870	22.10		0.87	low loss communications, 0.098 dB/meter @ 2.4 GHz
LMR-1200	50	8.86 mm BC tube	PF	0.920	23.37	1.200	30.48		0.88	low loss communications, 0.075 dB/meter @ 2.4 GHz
LMR-1700	50	13.39 mm BC tube	PF	1.350	34.29	1.670	42.42		0.89	low loss communications, 0.056 dB/meter @ 2.4 GHz

There are also other designation schemes for coaxial cables such as The URM, CT and WF series

Significance of impedance

A question that is often asked is what the significance of a 52 or 75 Ω characteristic impedance is. The best coaxial cable impedances to use in high-power, high-voltage, and low-attenuation applications were experimentally determined in 1929 at Bell Laboratories to be 30, 60, and 77 Ω respectively. 30 Ω cable is exceedingly hard to make however, so a compromise between 30 Ω and 60 Ω was reached at 52 Ω, which has persisted; note this also corresponds very closely to the drive impedance of a half wave dipole antenna in real environments, and provides an acceptable match to the drive impedance of quarter wave monopoles as well. 73 Ω is an exact match for a centre fed dipole aerial/antenna in free space (approximated by very high dipoles without ground reflections), so 75 was adopted as a compromise between 73 and 77 ohms.

Uses

Short coaxial cables are commonly used to connect home video equipment, in amateur radio setups, and in NIM. They used to be common for implementing computer networks, in particular Ethernet, but twisted pair cables have replaced them in most applications except in the growing consumer cable modem market for broadband Internet access.

Long distance coaxial cable is used to connect radio networks and television networks, though this has largely been superseded by other more high-tech methods (fibre optics, T1/E-carrier, satellite). It still carries cable television signals to the majority of television receivers, and this purpose consumes the majority of coaxial cable production.

Micro coaxial cables are used in a range of consumer devices, military equipment, and also in ultra-sound scanning equipment.

The most common impedances that are widely used are 50 or 52 ohms, and 75 ohms, although other impedances are available for specific applications. The 50 / 52 ohm cables are widely used for industrial and commercial two-way radio frequency applications (including radio, and telecommunications), although 75 ohms is commonly used for Broadcasting television and radio.

Types

In broadcasting and other forms of radio communication, hard line (also known as hard pipe) is a very heavy-duty coaxial cable, where the outside shielding is a rigid or semi-rigid pipe, rather than flexible and braided wire. Hard line is very thick, typically at least a half inch or 13 mm and up to several times that, and has low loss even at high power. It is almost always used in the connection between a transmitter on the ground and the antenna (electronics) or aerial on the tower. Hard lines are often made to be pressure with nitrogen or desiccated air, which provide an excellent dielectric even at the high temperatures generated by thousands of watts of RF power, especially during intense summer heat and sunshine. Physical separation between the inner conductor and outer shielding is maintained by spacers, usually made out of tough solid plastics like nylon.

RG/6 is available in three different types designed for various applications. "Plain" or "house" wire is designed for indoor or external house wiring. "Flooded" cable is infused with heavy waterproofing for use in underground conduit. "Messenger" contains some waterproofing but is distinguished by the addition of a steel messenger wire along its length to carry the tension involved in an aerial drop from a utility pole.

Triaxial cable or triax is coaxial cable with a third layer of shielding, insulation and sheathing. The outer shield, which is earthed (grounded), protects the inner shield from electromagnetic interference from outside sources.

Twin-axial cable or twinax is a balanced, twisted pair within a cylindrical shield. It allows a nearly perfect differential signal which is both shielded and balanced to pass through. Multi-conductor coaxial cable is also sometimes used.

Biaxial cable or biax is a figure-8 configuration of two 50 Ω coaxial cables, used in some proprietary computer networks.

Semi-rigid cable is a coaxial form using a solid copper outer sheath. This type of coax offers superior screening compared to cables with a braided outer conductor, especially at higher frequencies. The major disadvantage is that the cable, as its name implies, is not very flexible, and is not intended to be flexed after initial forming.

Interference and troubleshooting

Coaxial cable insulation can degrade requiring cable replacement, especially if it has been exposed to the elements on a continuous basis. The shield is normally grounded, and if even a single thread of the braid or filament of foil touches the center conductor, the signal will be shorted causing significant or total signal loss. This most often occurs at improperly installed end connectors and splices. Also, the connector or splice must be properly attached to the shield, as this provides the return electrical path for the signal.

Despite being shielded, interference can occur on coaxial cable lines. Susceptibility to interference has little relationship to broad cable type designations (e.g. RG-59, RG-6) but is strongly related to the composition and configuration of the cable's shielding. For cable television, with frequencies extending well into the UHF range, a foil shield is normally provided, and will provide total coverage as well as high effectiveness against high-frequency interference. Foil shielding is ordinarily accompanied by a tinned copper or aluminum braid shield, with anywhere from 60 to 95% coverage. The braid is important to shield effectiveness because (1) it is more effective than foil at absorbing low-frequency interference, (2) it provides higher conductivity to ground than foil, and (3) it makes attaching a connector easier and more reliable. "Quad-shield" cable, using two low-coverage aluminum braid shields and two layers of foil, is often used in situations involving troublesome interference, but is less effective than a single layer of foil and single high-coverage copper braid shield such as is found on broadcast-quality precision video cable.

In the United States and some other countries, cable channels 2-13 share the same frequency as those from television broadcast towers. If the cable consumer is too close to a television tower and the cable company provides the same station on the like channel, interference and 'ghosting' may result. One solution is to make sure the cable signal is at the maximum allowed strength (especially if hybrid coils are used for multiple TV sets), as this will increase the signal-to-noise ratio (the "noise" being the pickup of the broadcast tower). Choosing coaxial cable with high shield effectiveness, and ensuring that connections are sound and tight, can also help reduce interference. Only industrial-quality cable TV amplifiers (generally not available at retail) should be used to amplify weak signals. Cheaper ones, sold at consumer electronics stores, often cause more problems than they solve.

Timeline

• 1880 Coaxial cable patented in England by Oliver Heaviside, patent no. 1,407.
• 1884 Coaxial cable patented in Germany by Ernst Werner von Siemens, but with no known application.
• 1894 Oliver Lodge demonstrates waveguide transmission at the Royal Institution. Nikola Tesla receives US patent, Electrical Conductor, on February 6.
• 1929 First modern coaxial cable patented by Lloyd Espenschied and Herman Affel of AT&T (1885-2005) Bell Labl Telephone Laboratories.
• 1936 First transmission of television pictures on coaxial cable, from the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin to Leipzig.
• 1936 — World's first underwater coaxial cable installed between Apollo Bay, near Melbourne, Australia, and Stanley, Tasmania. The 300-km cable can carry one broadcast channel and seven telephone channels.
• 1936 AT&T installs experimental coaxial telephone and television cable between New York and Philadelphia, with automatic booster stations every ten miles. Completed in December, it can transmit 240 telephone calls simultaneously.
• 1936 Coaxial cable laid by the Post Office (now British Telecom) between London and Birmingham, providing 40 telephone channels. [Source: archives at http://www.bt.com]
• 1941 First commercial use in USA by AT&T, between Minneapolis, Minnesota and Stevens Point, Wisconsin. L1 system with capacity of one TV channel or 480 telephone circuits.
• 1956 First transatlantic coaxial cable laid, TAT-1.

External links

• Coaxial Cable Specifications
• What does "RG-6" mean?
• Coaxial Cable FAQ Wire Guide
• Coaxial Cable Selection Guide